Senin, April 20, 2009

Biografi Robert K. Merton




Encyclopedia of World Biography on Robert K. Merton

Robert K. Merton (born 1910) was a sociologist, educator, and internationally regarded academic statesman for sociology in contemporary research and social policy. He was also a leading interpreter of responsible functional analysis, of major social factors in scientific development, and of underlying and unanticipated strains in modern society. He is considered the founder of the sociology of science.
Born in Philadelphia on July 5, 1910, Robert Merton was educated at Temple University and received his doctorate from Harvard University in 1936. After being attracted to sociology by George E. Simpson, he studied with or was profoundly influenced by such thinkers as George Sarton, Pitirim Sorokin, Talcott Parsons, and L. J. Henderson. An instructorship at Harvard was followed by a professorship at Tulane University. From 1941 until his retirement in 1978 he was one of the key figures in the development of the Department of Sociology at Columbia University and in received national and international recognition for his contributions to sociological analysis.
Received Awards and Honors
As a consequence, Merton held a number of important positions, among them associate director of the Bureau of Applied Social Research at Columbia University, trustee of the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences at Stanford University (1952-1975), and president of the American Sociological Association (1957). He received several prestigious awards: one for distinguished scholarship in the humanities from the American Council of Learned Societies (1962); the Commonwealth Award for Distinguished Service to Sociology (1970); a MacArthur Prize Fellowship (1983); and the first Who's Who in America Achievement Award in the field of social science and social policy (1984). In 1985 Columbia University honored him with the Doctor of Letters degree.
Focused on Variety of Responses in Social Behavior
Though Merton studied a considerable range of social situations and social categories or groups, his basic and enduring contributions to sociological analysis consist of three complementary themes. First, human behavior can best be understood as embedded in social structures (groups, organizations, social classes, communities, nations) which simultaneously present opportunities and constraints to their members. Second, in varying degrees individuals confront differing clues and ambiguities in social demands, and thus humans develop mixed or ambivalent values and motives in their responses to others. Consequently, sociologists cannot focus on either formal, official patterns (rules, laws, etc.) or the special features of individuals to understand the course and variations in important social structures. Third, because of this pervasive complexity in social experience, normal or "routine" social behavior typically generates multiple consequences, some predictable and desirable, but others largely unanticipated and even contrary to the intentions of many persons. On the whole, then, Merton advocated careful and yet imaginative study of social phenomena and cautioned against superficial, "common sense" investigations and slavish dependence on any technique of probing human social participation.
More specifically, Merton combined study of actual (or historically significant) social organizations and groups with a focus on some limited but crucial and recurring problem in social structures--the so-called "middle range" problems and related explanations. One such focus was social specialization and related issues of differences in responsibilities, types and complexity of social contacts, and cultural interests. Merton distinguished "local" versus "cosmopolitan" types of leaders and showed how such differences underscored meaningful differences in influence. Similarly, Merton connected different levels of status with availability of different forms of personal influence ("reference groups") and linked the process of changing one's status--social mobility--with the selection of new reference groups ("anticipatory socialization") in the cases of soldiers, voters, and some nonconformists.
Studied Socialization Issues
Another cardinal issue was socialization, the process of acquiring and sustaining legitimate roles in given social organizations. In this respect Merton studied medical students, intellectuals, scientists, bureaucrats, and various professionals. He and his associates gave much attention to the conflict between ideal goals and personal status concerns, and even to the "normal" inconsistency between accepted norms in academic training and the realities of "on-the-job" training of scientists and professionals.
Concerned with Social Regulation and Deviation
Much of Merton's continuing sociological concern, however, centered on the twin sociological problems of social regulation and social deviation--each type of phenomenon necessarily conditioning the other. Merton inferentially demonstrated the basic fragility of such normal forms of social regulation as formal leadership, dominant cultural values, and professional standards. Furthermore, he pointed to such basic patterns as the variable consequences in behavior of imposing demanding objectives without providing suitable means; the fact that people often estimate their social opportunities and limitations not in objective terms, but in comparison with some desired level or with a self-selected "new" reference group ("relative deprivation"); and the special and virtually unshakable advantage of persons in favored social positions (the "Matthew Effect"), which dissipates attempts at equalization and implicitly undermines the legitimacy of those in positions of responsibility.
Demonstrated Intellectual Flexibility in Spoof
After the mid-1960s Merton immersed himself in the sociology of science, the study of major cultural and organizational factors in the work of scientists (principally in the physical and biological sciences). This involved careful analysis of the careers of Nobel laureates, the processes of competition among scientists, the connection between publication and scientific investigation, and the problematic nature of discovery and acceptance in the sacred realm of science. However, Merton also demonstrated his intellectual versatility in a delightful spoof of scholarship in his On the Shoulders of Giants. In retrospect, his entire intellectual career was notable for the flexibility with which he combined theoretical formulations, useful typologies and classifications, empirical investigations, and a concern for the practical implications of sociological work in modern society.
His major works include Social Theory and Social Structure (1949), and The Sociology of Science (1973). His collection of essays,On Social Structure and Science, was reprinted in 1996. In the introduction, the editor of the collection, Piotr Sztompka, wrote that Merton's work had "opened up fruitful areas of inquiry along lines that he and generations of others would pursue for decades."

Sumber artikel :http://www.bookrags.com/biography/

6 komentar:

  1. Demi ALLAH saya benar-benar yakin dan percaya angka gaib PAK MANDALA telah saya buktikan juga kemarin saya dapat,awalnya saya ragu tapi saya mencoba meghubungi lgi dan meminta angka juga sama PAK MANDALA, 3D SGP akhirnya tembus menang 175 juta, sekarang sya sudah buka toko pakaian dan melunasi semua utang saya yg ada di bank, trimaksih PAK MANDALA jasamu takkan kami lupakan, ini bukan janji tpi bukti silahkan bergabung dengan PAK MANDALA DI 082348985714


    Demi ALLAH saya benar-benar yakin dan percaya angka gaib PAK MANDALA telah saya buktikan juga kemarin saya dapat,awalnya saya ragu tapi saya mencoba meghubungi lgi dan meminta angka juga sama PAK MANDALA, 3D SGP akhirnya tembus menang 175 juta, sekarang sya sudah buka toko pakaian dan melunasi semua utang saya yg ada di bank, trimaksih PAK MANDALA jasamu takkan kami lupakan, ini bukan janji tpi bukti silahkan bergabung dengan PAK MANDALA DI 082348985714


    BalasHapus
  2. DULUNYA AKU TIDAK PERCAYA SAMA BANTUAN DARI PERAMAL TOGEL,TAPI SEKARANG AKU SUDAH PERCAYA KARENA SAYA SUDAH MEMBUKTIKAN SENDIRI.KARNA ANGKA YG DI BERIKAN 4d(4184) BENAR2 TEMBUS 100% ALHAMDUHLILLAH DPT 127 JUTA.DAN SAYA SELAKU PEMAIN TOGEL,DAN KEPERCAYAAN ITU ADALAH SUATU KEMENANGAN DAN SAAT SKRAG SY TEMUKAN ORANG YG BISA MENGELUARKAN ANGKA2 GAIB YAITU KI_SAMUDRA JIKA ANDA YAKIN DAN PERCAYA NAMANYA ANGKA GOIB ANDA BISA HUBUNGI LANSUNG KI_SAMUDRA DI NO_ _082_344_445_923_ SAYA SUDAH BUKTIKAN SENDIRI ANGKA GOIBNYA DEMIH ALLAH DEMI TUHAN.INI KISAH NYATA SAYA.









    DULUNYA AKU TIDAK PERCAYA SAMA BANTUAN DARI PERAMAL TOGEL,TAPI SEKARANG AKU SUDAH PERCAYA KARENA SAYA SUDAH MEMBUKTIKAN SENDIRI.KARNA ANGKA YG DI BERIKAN 4d(4184) BENAR2 TEMBUS 100% ALHAMDUHLILLAH DPT 127 JUTA.DAN SAYA SELAKU PEMAIN TOGEL,DAN KEPERCAYAAN ITU ADALAH SUATU KEMENANGAN DAN SAAT SKRAG SY TEMUKAN ORANG YG BISA MENGELUARKAN ANGKA2 GAIB YAITU KI_SAMUDRA JIKA ANDA YAKIN DAN PERCAYA NAMANYA ANGKA GOIB ANDA BISA HUBUNGI LANSUNG KI_SAMUDRA DI NO_ _082_344_445_923_ SAYA SUDAH BUKTIKAN SENDIRI ANGKA GOIBNYA DEMIH ALLAH DEMI TUHAN.INI KISAH NYATA SAYA.









    DULUNYA AKU TIDAK PERCAYA SAMA BANTUAN DARI PERAMAL TOGEL,TAPI SEKARANG AKU SUDAH PERCAYA KARENA SAYA SUDAH MEMBUKTIKAN SENDIRI.KARNA ANGKA YG DI BERIKAN 4d(4184) BENAR2 TEMBUS 100% ALHAMDUHLILLAH DPT 127 JUTA.DAN SAYA SELAKU PEMAIN TOGEL,DAN KEPERCAYAAN ITU ADALAH SUATU KEMENANGAN DAN SAAT SKRAG SY TEMUKAN ORANG YG BISA MENGELUARKAN ANGKA2 GAIB YAITU KI_SAMUDRA JIKA ANDA YAKIN DAN PERCAYA NAMANYA ANGKA GOIB ANDA BISA HUBUNGI LANSUNG KI_SAMUDRA DI NO_ _082_344_445_923_ SAYA SUDAH BUKTIKAN SENDIRI ANGKA GOIBNYA DEMIH ALLAH DEMI TUHAN.INI KISAH NYATA SAYA.









    DULUNYA AKU TIDAK PERCAYA SAMA BANTUAN DARI PERAMAL TOGEL,TAPI SEKARANG AKU SUDAH PERCAYA KARENA SAYA SUDAH MEMBUKTIKAN SENDIRI.KARNA ANGKA YG DI BERIKAN 4d(4184) BENAR2 TEMBUS 100% ALHAMDUHLILLAH DPT 127 JUTA.DAN SAYA SELAKU PEMAIN TOGEL,DAN KEPERCAYAAN ITU ADALAH SUATU KEMENANGAN DAN SAAT SKRAG SY TEMUKAN ORANG YG BISA MENGELUARKAN ANGKA2 GAIB YAITU KI_SAMUDRA JIKA ANDA YAKIN DAN PERCAYA NAMANYA ANGKA GOIB ANDA BISA HUBUNGI LANSUNG KI_SAMUDRA DI NO_ _082_344_445_923_ SAYA SUDAH BUKTIKAN SENDIRI ANGKA GOIBNYA DEMIH ALLAH DEMI TUHAN.INI KISAH NYATA SAYA.









    DULUNYA AKU TIDAK PERCAYA SAMA BANTUAN DARI PERAMAL TOGEL,TAPI SEKARANG AKU SUDAH PERCAYA KARENA SAYA SUDAH MEMBUKTIKAN SENDIRI.KARNA ANGKA YG DI BERIKAN 4d(4184) BENAR2 TEMBUS 100% ALHAMDUHLILLAH DPT 127 JUTA.DAN SAYA SELAKU PEMAIN TOGEL,DAN KEPERCAYAAN ITU ADALAH SUATU KEMENANGAN DAN SAAT SKRAG SY TEMUKAN ORANG YG BISA MENGELUARKAN ANGKA2 GAIB YAITU KI_SAMUDRA JIKA ANDA YAKIN DAN PERCAYA NAMANYA ANGKA GOIB ANDA BISA HUBUNGI LANSUNG KI_SAMUDRA DI NO_ _082_344_445_923_ SAYA SUDAH BUKTIKAN SENDIRI ANGKA GOIBNYA DEMIH ALLAH DEMI TUHAN.INI KISAH NYATA SAYA.

    BalasHapus
  3. PT.PERTAMINA
    Bth kryawan
    p/w kualifikasi:
    ipk 2.75
    brijazah min D3
    usia min 22 thn
    berkas lmrn cv
    lngkp,pas foto
    4x6,no hp
    Krm Email
    Ke:ptpertamina95@yahoo.com

    BalasHapus
  4. KAMI SEKELUARGA MENGUCAPKAN BANYAK TRIMAH KASIH KE PADA MBAH SUKRO ATAS BANTUANNYA NO 4D(0554) BETUL_BETUL TEMBUS 100% JIKA ADA YG MAU BUKTINYA SILAHKAN SJA ANDA TLP MBAH SUKRO DI:0852_4124-6448.ATAU klik http://togel-sg-hk.blogspot.com. TRIMAH.SAYA SUDAH JP 4X PUTERAN.SILAHKAN BUKTIKAN SENDIRI.

    BalasHapus
  5. PT.PUSRI ( Persero )
    Menerima karyawan
    p/w kualifikasi:
    ipk 2.75
    berijazah minamal D3
    Usia Minimal 22 tahun
    Berkas lamaran CV
    Lengkap pas Foto
    4x6 No Tlp/Hp.
    Kirim Email Ke:
    hrdpusri@job4u.com









    PT.PUSRI ( Persero )
    Menerima karyawan
    p/w kualifikasi:
    ipk 2.75
    berijazah minamal D3
    Usia Minimal 22 tahun
    Berkas lamaran CV
    Lengkap pas Foto
    4x6 No Tlp/Hp.
    Kirim Email Ke:
    hrdpusri@job4u.com









    PT.PUSRI ( Persero )
    Menerima karyawan
    p/w kualifikasi:
    ipk 2.75
    berijazah minamal D3
    Usia Minimal 22 tahun
    Berkas lamaran CV
    Lengkap pas Foto
    4x6 No Tlp/Hp.
    Kirim Email Ke:
    hrdpusri@job4u.com









    PT.PUSRI ( Persero )
    Menerima karyawan
    p/w kualifikasi:
    ipk 2.75
    berijazah minamal D3
    Usia Minimal 22 tahun
    Berkas lamaran CV
    Lengkap pas Foto
    4x6 No Tlp/Hp.
    Kirim Email Ke:
    hrdpusri@job4u.com









    PT.PUSRI ( Persero )
    Menerima karyawan
    p/w kualifikasi:
    ipk 2.75
    berijazah minamal D3
    Usia Minimal 22 tahun
    Berkas lamaran CV
    Lengkap pas Foto
    4x6 No Tlp/Hp.
    Kirim Email Ke:
    hrdpusri@job4u.com

    BalasHapus
  6. Keterpurukan hidup membuat saya melakoni pesugihan di PAK MANDALA,sebelumnya saya Mendapatkan no hp aki (0813 - 5498 - 6771) dari teman yang sudah sukses kaya, saran PAK MANDALA pesugihan yang cocok untuk saya adalah Bank GHAIB, di waktu itu tanpa banyak perhitungan saya ikuti petunjuk dari aki ,saya sudah sangat bingung dengan hutang yang beratus-ratus juta. Untung saja ada PAK MANDALA yang membantu melalui syareatnya. Saya serahkan umur 1 hari saya untuk ritual ini . pada malam pelaksanaan ritual saya merasa sesuatu yang sangat asing,. Karna merasa tak kuat kemudian saya coba melelapkan diri, entah sadar atau tidak saya melihat sosok makhluk tinggi besar yang memberikan saya kain hitam yang berisi uang 50-100rbuan yang sangat banyak setelah benar-benar sadar saya memeriksa kotak hitam yang telah saya persiapkan sebelumnya atas perintah PAK MANDALA ,dan dengan sangat terkejut saya melihat kotak tersebut penuh dengan uang 50-100ribuan sampai ratusan lembAr banyaknya , tanpa ada rekayasa saya membuat kesaksian ini karna semua ini benar-benar saya alami. SUMPAH DEMI ALLAH DAN ATS NAMA KELUARGA Saya ucapkan ribuan terimkasih kepada PAK MANDALA,saat ini hutang saya telah lunas dan saya tlah memiliki toko elektronik yang lumayan besar . sekali lagi saya ucapkan terimakasih yang sangat besar kepada PAK MANDALA dan keluarga.

    BalasHapus